The Creativity Crisis: The Decrease in Creative Thinking Scores on the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking

ness of titles. The total Titles scores for Years 1984, 1990, 1998, and 2008 increased up to fifth grade, remained static in sixth grade, t(36,664)1⁄4 3.40, p1⁄4 .043, seventh and eighth grades, t(44,612)1⁄4 2.02, p1⁄4 .001, and high school, t(29,475)1⁄4 1.12, p1⁄4 .001, as Figure 1 shows. Titles scores significantly increased in adults, t(15,602)1⁄4 14.84, p< .001. FIGURE 1 Total Fluency, Originality, Elaboration, Abstractness of Titles, and Resistance to Premature Closure scores for Years 1966, 1974, 1984, 1990, 1998, and 2008 by grade level. 288 KIM D ow nl oa de d by [ C ol le ge o f W ill ia m & M ar y] a t 1 5: 39 0 3 A pr il 20 12 Resistance to premature closure. The total Closure scores for Years 1984, 1990, 1998, and 2008 increased up to third grade, and remained static in fourth grade, t(56,805)1⁄4 1.81, p1⁄4 .043, and fifth grade, t(73,096)1⁄4 2.02, p1⁄4 .070, as Figure 1 shows. Closure scores significantly decreased in sixth grade, t(44,612)1⁄4 8.09, p< .001, seventh and eighth grades, t(36,664)1⁄4 6.59, p< .001, and high school, t(29,475)1⁄4 10.37, p< .001. Closure scores significantly increased in adults, t(15,602)1⁄4 6.47, p< .001. How Has Creative Thinking Changed Over the Last 40 Years? Fluency. Fluency scores decreased from 1966 to 1974, increased from 1974 to 1990, but decreased from 1990 to 2008, as Figure 2 shows. The decrease in Fluency scores from 1966 to 1974 was significant, t(22,259)1⁄4 10.24, p< .001, d1⁄4 0.20 (small to moderate effect). The increase in Fluency scores from 1974 to 1984 was significant, t(56,923)1⁄4 7.38, p< .001, d1⁄4 0.07 (small effect). The increase in Fluency scores from 1984 to 1990 was significant, t(126,167)1⁄4 8.54, p< .001, d1⁄4 0.05 (small effect). The decrease in Fluency scores from 1990 to 1998 was significant, t(142504)1⁄4 23.81, p< .001, d1⁄4 0.13 (small to moderate effect). The decrease in Fluency scores from 1998 to 2008 was significant, t(124,167)1⁄4 11.10, p< .001, d1⁄4 0.06 (small effect). To compare between age groups, five categories were created: Kindergartners though third graders, fourth through six graders, seventh and eighth graders, high school students, and adults. The decreases in Fluency scores from 1990 to 2008 were examined separately for the five different age groups. The largest decrease in Fluency scores from 1990 to 2008 was for kindergartners through third graders, t(92,931)1⁄4 48.56, p< .001, d1⁄4 0.32 (moderate effect). The second largest decrease in Fluency scores was for fourth through sixth graders, t(45,732)1⁄4 17.37, p< .001, d1⁄4 0.17 (small to moderate effect). The decrease in Fluency scores for high school students was not significant at .001, t(6,193)1⁄4 2.79, p1⁄4 .005. Contrarily, Fluency scores for seventh and eighth graders increased, but the increase was not significant, t(10,081)1⁄4 2.22, p1⁄4 .026. Fluency scores for adults also increased, but the increase was not significant, t(3,426)1⁄4 1.71, p1⁄4 .087. Originality. Originality scores increased from 1966 to 1974, but decreased from 1990 to 1998 and remained FIGURE 2 Fluency, Originality, Creative Strengths, and Elaboration scores for Years 1974, 1984, 1990, 1998, and 2008. THE DECREASE IN CREATIVE THINKING 289 D ow nl oa de d by [ C ol le ge o f W ill ia m & M ar y] a t 1 5: 39 0 3 A pr il 20 12 static from 1998 to 2008, as Figure 2 shows. From 1966 to 1974, the increase was significant, t(22,259)1⁄4 11.08, p< .001, d1⁄4 0.22 (small to moderate effect). From 1990 to 1998, the decrease was significant, t(142,504)1⁄4 16.85, p< .001, d1⁄4 0.09 (small effect). From 1998 to 2008, Originality scores increased very slightly, but the difference was not significant at .001, t(124,167)1⁄4 3.20, p> .001. The decreases in Originality scores from 1990 to 2008 were examined for the five different age groups separately. The largest decrease in Originality scores from 1990 to 2008 was for kindergartners through third graders, t(92,931)1⁄4 10.31, p< .001, d1⁄4 0.07 (small effect). The second largest decrease was for fourth through sixth graders, but it was not significant at .001, t(45,732) 1⁄4 3.18, p1⁄4 .002. The decrease in Originality scores for high school students was not significant, t(6,193)1⁄4 1.40, p1⁄4 .160. Originality scores for seventh and eighth graders significantly increased, t(10,081)1⁄4 7.07, p< .001, d1⁄4 0.15 (small to moderate effect). Originality scores for adults also increased, but the increase was not significant at .001, t(3,426)1⁄4 3.08, p1⁄4 .002. Creative strengths. Strengths scores decreased from 1990 to 2008, as Figure 2 shows. From 1990 to 1998, the decrease was significant, t(36,527)1⁄4 4.36, p< .001, d1⁄4 0.05 (small effect). From 1998 to 2008, the decrease was significant, t(50,129)1⁄4 4.26, p< .001, d1⁄4 0.04 (small effect). Strengths was the only criterion-referenced subscale of the TTCT and grade levels for the subscale were not available, therefore no age group analysis was conducted. Elaboration. Elaboration scores increased from 1966 to 1974, but decreased from 1984 to 2008, as Figure 2 shows. From 1966 to 1974, the increase was significant, t(22,259)1⁄4 20.33, p< .001, d1⁄4 0.42 (moderate to large effect). From 1984 to 1990, the decrease was significant, t(126,167)1⁄4 106.14, p< .001, d1⁄4 0.62 (large effect). From 199 0 to 1998, the decrease was significant, t(142,504)1⁄4 37.21, p< .001, d1⁄4 0.21 (small to moderate effect). From 1998 to 2008, the decrease was significant, t(124,167)1⁄4 103.20, p< .001, d1⁄4 0.59 (large effect). The decreases in Elaboration scores from 1984 to 2008 were examined for the five different age groups separately. The largest decrease in Elaboration scores from 1984 to 2008 was for adults, t(1,564)1⁄4 27.88, p< .001, d1⁄4 1.54 (large effect). The second largest decrease in Elaboration scores was for kindergartners through third graders, t(63,122)1⁄4 150.71, p< .001, d1⁄4 1.23 (large effect). The third largest decrease in Elaboration scores was for high school students, t(3,956)1⁄4 24.71, p< .001, d1⁄4 1.18 (large effect). The decrease in Elaboration scores for seventh and eighth graders was significant, t(8,001)1⁄4 43.54, p< .001, d1⁄4 1.06 (large effect). The decrease in Elaboration scores for fourth through sixth graders was significant, t(31,179)1⁄4 92.64, p< .001, d1⁄4 1.03 (large effect). Thus, the decreases in Elaboration scores for all five age groups were significant with large effect sizes. Abstractness of titles. Titles scores increased until 1998, but decreased from 1998 to 2008, as Table 1 shows. From 1984 to 1990, the increase in Titles scores was significant, t(126,167)1⁄4 33.78, p< .001, d1⁄4 0.20 (small to moderate effect). From 1990 to 1998, the increase in Titles scores was significant, t(142,504)1⁄4 49.28, p< .001, d1⁄4 0.27 (small to moderate effect). From 1998 to 2008, however, the decrease in Titles scores was significant, t(124,167)1⁄4 24.82, p< .001, d1⁄4 0.14 (small to moderate effect). The decreases in Titles scores from 1998 to 2008 were examined for the four different age groups separately. Adults were excluded from this analysis because adults were not included in the normative sample in 1998.ness of titles. Titles scores increased until 1998, but decreased from 1998 to 2008, as Table 1 shows. From 1984 to 1990, the increase in Titles scores was significant, t(126,167)1⁄4 33.78, p< .001, d1⁄4 0.20 (small to moderate effect). From 1990 to 1998, the increase in Titles scores was significant, t(142,504)1⁄4 49.28, p< .001, d1⁄4 0.27 (small to moderate effect). From 1998 to 2008, however, the decrease in Titles scores was significant, t(124,167)1⁄4 24.82, p< .001, d1⁄4 0.14 (small to moderate effect). The decreases in Titles scores from 1998 to 2008 were examined for the four different age groups separately. Adults were excluded from this analysis because adults were not included in the normative sample in 1998. TABLE 1 Means and Standard Deviations of the Subscale Scores on the TTCT for Years 1966, 1974, 1984, 1990, 1998, and 2008 (N1⁄4 272, 599) TTCT Fluency Originality Strengths Elaboration Titles Closure Year M(SD) M(SD) M(SD) M(SD) M(SD) M(SD) 1966 22.04 (7.00) 26.82 (10.38) – 60.40 (24.22) – – 1974 20.66 (7.01) 29.15 (11.02) – 71.56 (29.20) – – 1984 21.15 (7.71) 12.51 (5.41) – 8.45 (2.90) 5.50 (3.58) 10.97 (4.39) 1990 21.56 (7.86) 14.69 (6.11) 3.48 (1.98) 6.81 (2.33) 6.21 (3.35) 9.99 (3.75) 1998 20.55 (7.63) 14.14 (5.76) 3.37 (2.74) 6.37 (1.87) 7.15 (3.72) 12.52 (4.01) 2008 20.05 (8.05) 14.25 (6.20) 3.28 (1.75) 5.34 (1.64) 6.62 (3.74) 12.29 (4.43) Note. Titles1⁄4Abstractness of Titles; Closure1⁄4Resistance to Premature Closure; Strengths1⁄4Creative Strengths. p< .001 when compared to the mean of the previous year. The sample size (N1⁄4 60,757) for the Creative Strengths scores is based on n1⁄4 12,541 (1990), n1⁄4 23,988 (1998), and n1⁄4 26143 (2008), due to missing values. 290 KIM D ow nl oa de d by [ C ol le ge o f W ill ia m & M ar y] a t 1 5: 39 0 3 A pr il 20 12 The largest decrease in Titles scores from 1998 to 2008 was for kindergartners through third graders, t(82,972)1⁄4 19.31, p< .001, d1⁄4 0.14 (small to moderate effect). The decrease in Titles scores for high school students was not significant, t(2,453)1⁄4 1.87, p1⁄4 .062. The decrease in Titles scores for seventh and eighth graders was not significant, t(6,217)1⁄4 2.03, p1⁄4 .042. Contrarily, Titles scores for fourth through sixth graders increased slightly, but the increase was not significant, t(31,937)1⁄4 0.48, p1⁄4 .633. Resistance to premature closure. Closure scores decreased from 1984 to 1990, increased from 1990 to 1998, but decreased again from 1998 to 2008, as Table 1 shows. From 1984 to 1990, the decrease in Closure scores was significant, t(126,167)1⁄4 40.35, p< .001, d1⁄4 0.24 (small to moderate effect). From 1990 to 1998, the increase in Closure scores was significant, t(142,504)1⁄4 120.38, p< .001, d1⁄4 0.65 (large effect). From 1998 to 2008, however, the decrease in Closure scores was significant, t(124,167)1⁄4 9.45, p< .001, d1⁄4 0.05 (small effect). The decreases in Closure scores from 1998 to 2008 were examined for the four different age groups separately. The largest decrease in Closure scores from 1998 to 2008 was for kindergartners through third graders, t(82,972)1⁄4 12.86, p< .001, d1⁄4 0.09 (small effect). Closure scores for fourth through sixth graders significantly increased, t(31,937)1⁄4 4.06, p1⁄4 .633, p< .001, d1⁄4 0.05 (small effect). Closure scores for seventh and eighth graders increased, but the increase was not significant, t(6,217)1⁄4 1.73, p1⁄4 .083. Closure scores for high school students increased, but the increase was not significant, t(2,453)1⁄4 0.28, p1⁄4 .782.